Types of adaptation - what can be attributed to them, meaning

Throughout life, a person needs to adapt to new conditions. Types of adaptation are divided into biological, sociological and psychological. Adaptive abilities are constantly in demand. Since it is often necessary to make new decisions, move to different communities and organizations where it is necessary to maintain established routines. Biological changes take place accordingly. However, this process sometimes takes entire generations for part of the population to adapt to specific conditions.

In psychology there is the concept of an adaptation barrier. It denotes a kind of boundary, beyond which the individual’s adaptation to changes will no longer remain normal.

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The properties of this barrier largely depend on the person himself, his biological parameters and characteristics, constitutional typology of personality, various social factors, personal properties, type of self-esteem, will or value system. They also determine a person’s adaptive capabilities.

Types of adaptation and their characteristics

A person must adapt constantly. The baby needs to get used to the features of the environment and undergo physical adaptation, learning to crawl, walk, interact with objects and speak. At an older age, it is necessary to adapt to society.

It is especially important for a child to acquire his first social skills at school. In preschool age, he gains disciplinary experience, learns new rules of behavior, and learns to bear responsibility for the quality of the work performed. Throughout life, a person constantly becomes part of something new, repeating the processes of various types of adaptation again and again. The ability to adapt socially gives a person the opportunity to acquire new knowledge. He begins to interact with other people.

Human adaptation is referred to as “learning.” It has several components:

• reactive - a person reacts to external factors, gets used to something;
• Operant is a method of trial and error, observation and formation of reactions, or processes of slow adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world;
• cognitive - refers to the observation of connections between situations and their assessment based on previous experience.

That is why organizations often have a special person whose task is to adapt newly hired employees. This is due to the fact that all organizations have their own tasks, goals and deadlines that must be completed by the hands of valuable employees. This is complicated by the fact that they may leave their post. Therefore, the hired person must be quickly brought up to date. Tell him about the basic rules and specifics of the organization. All this allows you to speed up the process of adaptation to a new workplace.

Definition of adaptation

Adaptation, or an adaptive trait, is a trait produced by DNA or the interaction of the epigenome with the environment.
Although not all adaptations are entirely positive, for an adaptation to persist in a population it must increase fitness or reproductive success. All children, regardless of whether they are formed sexually or asexually, inherit their traits from their parents. Asexual reproduction creates mostly identical clones. Adaptation occurs in asexual populations due to mutations in DNA, errors in DNA copying, or interactions of DNA with changes in the environment. In sexually reproducing populations, adaptation occurs through similar mechanisms, with the additional effects of recombination during meiosis and a more complex DNA molecule. Adaptation may become vestigial or unused when changes in the population or environment render it useless. Adaptation also has certain trade-offs, such as the energy required to create the adaptation or the increase in predation the adaptation may cause.

Adaptation in pedagogy

Trial and error is a major part of the adaptation process throughout the entire period of schooling. It is expressed in the selection of ways to solve a problem and weed out wrong solutions. An example is a process where, over the course of several years, a child needs to acquire various knowledge in order to subsequently use the information received in exams and move on to the next stage of education.

It is worth considering that this type of adaptation implies the ability to move from one area of ​​activity to another. For example, from kindergarten to school, then to college and university. If a person does not meet the required behavioral characteristics, his adaptation is considered unsuccessful.

Examples of adaptation

Rhinoceros beetle

If you've ever seen a Rhinoceros Beetle, you've probably wondered what it uses those huge horns for. Below is a male rhinoceros beetle with his characteristic headdress.

Like all arthropods, the beetle is divided into segments. These different sections are very sensitive to adaptation. In Rhinoceros Beetle, the head section developed these large spines. Male beetles use these large structures to fight each other, a competition for the females. It is assumed that the ancestral beetles had few or no horns. As the bugs fought for comrades for many generations, mutations that created the best way to take down an opponent were rewarded. Over time, this adaptation of large horns emerged. The antlers with the greatest ability to defeat opponents will allow those males to reproduce more, and the adaptation will persist throughout the population.

Digestive tract in mammals

If you were to dissect different mammals, you would find something very peculiar about the size and composition of their digestive tracts. Carnivores, like wolves and cats, have very short and simple digestive tracts. In fact, the more carnivorous the animal, the shorter and simpler the digestive tract. Meat and animal products are easily digestible. The short gut adaptation allows these animals to quickly process the energy from their meat meal before it begins to rot in their intestines.

Herbivores, on the other hand, have long and complex digestive systems. Some mammals, the ruminants, have multiple stomachs to process energy from grasses and other tough plants. Non-ruminant herbivores have complex twists and turns in their guts, which increases the surface area and amount of time food spends in the digestive tract. This adaptation allows animals to recycle all the energy from plant material. Interestingly, humans have very complex intestines, an adaptation for herbivores. Part of the complex history of diet, nutrition, and health likely stems from the fact that the Western diet is focused on meat rather than the foods our bodies are designed to eat.

In organizations

In conditions of constant circulation of personnel, adaptation begins to become especially important. The main way to adapt to new conditions in this case is observation and reasoning. This means that a beginner will need to take a course of lectures and seminars in the chosen direction.

Adaptation also involves the work of special people. They should help the new employee through this process through both one-on-one conversations and all-hands meetings. The assignment of mentors is also practiced. On the practical side, they help bring a person up to date so that he can understand all the intricacies of the profession. In addition, getting to know the team is required. At the same time, it is possible to complete gradually more complex tasks, which should prepare the new employee for real work.

One of the most popular ways to adapt and unite a team is to hold meetings and trainings. Team members try on each other's roles, which allows for greater mutual understanding and increased work efficiency.

Adaptive types, classification

Formed as a result of adaptation to the conditions of the human environment. The food also differed in each region. As a result, distinctive human features appeared.

An adaptive standard is a set of defensive reactions that appear as a result of prolonged exposure to external and internal factors (stressful). Stress factors are the result of the influence of a combination of stimuli.

The norm of biological characteristics and reactions that depend on a person’s environment and manifest themselves in the development of individual characteristics is called the adaptive type of person.

Below are the types of adaptation:

• Biological adaptation is the distinctive features acquired by an organism for the purpose of protection as a result of the action of the environment in which a person was located.
• Ethnic - adaptation of a group of people to climatic and social conditions.
• Social adaptation is adaptation to the people around a person in any environment, to work, etc.
• Psychological - formed and manifested in all types of adaptation in order to survive and develop as a balanced personality.

Adaptive types of humans are classified depending on the environment and as a result of acquired characteristics:

• Continental.
• Tropical.
• Arid.
• Alpine.
• Moderate.
• Arctic.

Does not apply to types of adaptation

adaptation cannot be attributed to the probationary period if a mentor was not assigned to the employee. After all, the person was not introduced to organizational affairs. Without clear examples and attention, he simply does not have enough time to adapt to new conditions.

Threats and coercion directed at new students or employees cannot be classified as types of adaptation.

Especially if they are used to indicate their own or someone else’s authority. This does not improve performance, but only worsens overall results.

Adaptation as a social phenomenon

Social adaptation is not only a state of the individual, but also a process in which a social organism acquires balance and resistance to the influence and influence of the social environment. Social adaptation becomes especially relevant at critical stages of a person’s life and during periods of radical economic and social reforms.

Social adaptation is understood as the process of a person’s active adaptation to new social conditions of life. In the process of adaptation, a person acts as an object of influence from the social environment and as an active subject aware of the influence of this environment.

The adaptation process represents a wide polyphony of assimilation of social values ​​through socialization mechanisms. Man, as an active subject, studies and uses in his life the products of human civilization, which include managerial, economic, psychological, educational technologies and methods of developing social space. In fact, all elements of human culture are involved in the formation of personality through the mechanism of adaptation, which is an integral part and a necessary dominant of social development. Sociality is an important aspect of a person, his qualitative characteristic. The only exceptions are mentally ill people or those who have not gone through the stages of socialization since childhood (“Mowgli effect “1”).

The immediate impetus for the beginning of the process of social adaptation is usually the realization by a person or a social group that the behavioral stereotypes learned in previous social activities no longer ensure success and that it becomes important to rebuild behavior in accordance with the requirements of new social conditions or a new social environment for the adapting person .

As a rule, there are four stages of a person’s adaptation to a new social environment: 1) The initial stage, when an individual or group realizes how they should behave in a new social environment, but are not yet ready to recognize and accept the value system of the new environment and tend to adhere to the previous system values; 2) The stage of tolerance, when the individual or group and the new environment are mutually tolerant of each other’s value systems and behavioral patterns; 3) Accommodation, i.e. recognition and acceptance by the individual of the basic elements of the value system of the new environment, with simultaneous recognition by the new social environment of part of the values ​​of the individual, group 4) Assimilation, i.e. full coordination of the value systems of the individual, group and environment.

The intensity of adaptation processes in society largely depends on the stage of its development. In times of serious social changes, and even more so in times of social catastrophes, adaptation processes acquire particular intensity and affect almost all layers of society. The example of post-Soviet society clearly shows that almost every person must solve the problem of adapting to new social conditions, defining and recognizing a new position in society, and this process is not always equally successful. In addition, it should be noted that with the acceleration of social development, the intensity of adaptation processes in society as a whole increases. This leads to the fact that the processes of social adaptation become almost continuous in an evolutionarily developing society, and the ability to adapt to changes becomes vital not only for young people, but also for older generations. Readiness for change becomes one of the main conditions for a person’s success in life. As a result, the role of purposeful activities of state and public organizations, the role of education and applied science in the implementation of social adaptation processes in modern society is significantly increasing. Society, through a system of institutions and targeted programs, pays special attention to facilitating the processes of social adaptation of its members, whose ability to independently adapt to changes is limited. Thus, in many countries, programs for the social adaptation of disabled people, retired military personnel in the event of massive reductions in the army, migrants, released prisoners, etc. are being developed and implemented. Programs to promote the social adaptation of youth are no less important in a modern transitional society.

A distinction should be made between adaptation as a process and adaptability as a result of the process of social adaptation. There are subjective and objective adjustment criteria. Objective is the degree to which a person implements the norms and rules of life accepted in a particular social group. The subject is satisfaction with belonging to a certain social group, the conditions that are provided for the satisfaction and development of basic social needs.

General understanding of the concept of adaptation

tags:

Adaptation, Process, Stress, Factor, Man, Organism, Activity, Concept

Introduction

Human life cannot occur in isolation from the external environment. Objects and phenomena of the external environment constantly have a certain impact on a person and determine the conditions for the implementation of his activities, and often their impact is negative, harmful. The conditions for normal human functioning are very harsh. A change in body temperature of just one degree leads to a feeling of significant discomfort. A change in temperature of five to six degrees can lead to the death of the body. Man, like other animals, has undergone severe natural selection in his evolution, but still remains a rather vulnerable creature. Adaptation of the body makes it possible to smooth out many of the unpleasant consequences of a sharp change in the physical and physiological parameters of existence.

From birth to death, a person has to adapt to constantly changing living conditions.

Likewise, the mental health of the Russian population has not been left without the attention of concerned experts for several years. About 30% of Russians today need medical or advisory help from a psychiatrist or psychologist because they cannot adapt adequately. That is why the topic of adaptation is truly relevant today.

General understanding of the concept of adaptation

The concept of adaptation is one of the main ones in the scientific study of the organism, since it is the adaptation mechanisms developed in the process of evolution that ensure the possibility of the organism’s existence in constantly changing environmental conditions. Thanks to the adaptation process, optimal functioning of all body systems and balance in the “man-environment” system are achieved. The French physiologist C. Bernard put forward the hypothesis that any living organism, including the human one, exists thanks to the ability to constantly maintain parameters of the internal environment of the body that are favorable for its existence. This preservation occurs due to the work of complex self-regulatory mechanisms (which were later called homeostatic).

Bernard was the first to formulate the idea that constancy of the internal environment is a condition of any life. Subsequently, the American physiologist W. Cannon developed this theory and called the ideal state homeostasis. Homeostasis is a mobile equilibrium state of any system, maintained by its counteraction to internal and external factors that disrupt this balance. One of the central points of the doctrine of homeostasis is the idea that any stable system strives to maintain its stability. According to W. Cannon, when receiving signals about changes that threaten the system, the body turns on devices that continue to work until it can be returned to an equilibrium state. If the balance of the processes and systems of the body is disturbed, then the parameters of the internal environment are disturbed, and the living organism begins to suffer. The painful state will persist throughout the entire period of restoration of parameters that ensure the normal existence of the body. If the previous parameters cannot be achieved, then the body can try to achieve equilibrium with other, changed parameters. The body, thus, is not only able to return to ideal parameters, but will also try to adapt to new, less than ideal ones. In this case, the general condition of the body will differ from ideal. Chronic disease is a typical example of temporary equilibrium. Human vital activity is ensured not only through the desire for internal balance of all systems, but also through constant consideration of factors affecting this organism from the outside. The organism is not just surrounded by the environment, it exchanges with it. He is forced to constantly receive from the external environment the components necessary for life (for example, oxygen).

Complete isolation of a living organism from the external environment is tantamount to its death. Therefore, a living organism tries by all available means not only to return its internal state to the ideal, but also to adapt to the environment, making the exchange process more effective. In other words, adaptation is the process of adapting the internal environment of an organism to the external conditions of its life, that is, optimizing the interaction of “external” and “internal” in order to preserve and maintain life.

Adaptation in various sciences

The concept of “adaptation” arose initially in biology (“biological adaptation” is the adaptation of an organism to external conditions in the process of evolution, including morphophysiological and behavioral components), but it can also be attributed to general scientific concepts that arise at the “junctions” of sciences or even in certain areas of knowledge and are further extrapolated to many areas of natural and social sciences. The concept of “adaptation”, as a general scientific concept, promotes the unification of knowledge of various (natural, social, technical) systems.

There are many definitions of adaptation, both having a general, very broad meaning, and those that reduce the essence of the adaptation process to phenomena at one of many levels - from biochemical to social.

G. Selye made a significant contribution to the development of the modern theory of adaptation in physiology, biology and medicine. His concept of stress organically complements the theory of adaptation. The stages of stress are characteristic of any adaptation process, since they include a direct reaction to an impact requiring adaptive restructuring (anxiety stage, alarm reaction), and a period of maximum effective adaptation (resistance stage), and (in the case of insufficiency of adaptation mechanisms) disruption of the adaptation process ( stage of exhaustion).

The universal nature of these patterns makes it possible to similarly consider the relationship between mental adaptation and mental (emotional) stress.

Stress phenomena occur when the normal adaptive response is insufficient.

Issues of adaptation were studied at the cellular, organ, organismal, population and species levels. V.Yu. Vereshchagin identifies, in particular, medical-biological, evolutionary-genetic and ecological directions in the study of the problem of human adaptation, which are defined differently accordingly. Thus, G. Selye identifies the constantly ongoing process of adaptation with the concept of life. HELL. Slonim defines adaptation as a set of physiological characteristics that determine the balance of the organism with constant or changing environmental conditions. V.P. Kaznacheev considers physiological adaptation as a process of maintaining the functional state of homeostatic systems and the organism as a whole, ensuring its preservation, development, performance, and maximum life expectancy in inadequate environmental conditions. According to F.Z. Meyerson, adaptation is the process of adapting the body to the external environment or to changes occurring in the body itself. In his opinion, in addition to genotypic adaptation, which was developed in the process of evolutionary development and is inherited, there is phenotypic adaptation acquired during individual life. Phenotypic adaptation is defined as the process by which an organism acquires resistance to a certain environmental factor. F.Z. Meyerson considers the phasing of these processes, the transition of urgent adaptation to guaranteed adaptation, ensuring the fixation of existing adaptation systems. Studying the relationship between memory and adaptation, the researcher comes to the fair conclusion that memory is the main, necessary prerequisite for adaptation, but is not identical to it.

A.B. Georgievsky and co-authors distinguish between ontogenetic adaptation, associated with individual changes in the organism in response to environmental influences, and phylogenetic adaptation as a result of the historical transformation of organisms.

Since in the process of individual development of a person he develops adaptation mechanisms based primarily on the restructuring of social relations between people, V.G. Aseev believes that this concept can be used to determine scientific approaches to the study of social adaptation.

N. Nikitina defines social adaptation as the integration of the individual into the existing system of social relations. This definition does not take into account the specific features of social interaction in which both parties (the social environment and the person) are mutually active. A similar concept of adaptation was used by J. Piaget, who defined it as the unity of oppositely directed processes: accommodation and assimilation. The first of them ensures modification of the subject's behavior in accordance with the properties of the environment. The second changes certain components of this environment, processing them according to the structure of the organism or including them in the subject’s behavior patterns.

According to T.N. Vershinina, if the social environment is active in relation to the subject, then adaptation prevails in adaptation; if the subject dominates in the interaction, then adaptation has the character of active activity.

F.B. Berezin believes that mental adaptation plays a decisive role in human life, significantly influencing adaptation processes. Yu.A. Aleksandrovsky considers mental adaptation as the result of the activity of an integral self-governing system, which ensures human activity at the level of “operational rest,” allowing him not only to most optimally withstand various natural and social factors, but also to actively and purposefully influence them.

Adaptation in psychology

Psychological adaptation is that aspect of adaptation where a person is considered as an individual, affecting the structural components, characteristics of the personality, and its activity. The source of psychological adaptation is the interaction between the individual and society, and the means of implementation is the assimilation of norms, values, and requirements of a given society by a person. It should be noted that the criterion for the effectiveness of the adaptation process is the internal structure of the individual, his needs, motives, attitudes, etc. in accordance with the requirements of the housing society. The main mechanism of this adaptation is changes in the structural connections and relationships of those properties and qualities that are determined by the personality, i.e. their integration into a single system.

The implementation of the process of mental adaptation, according to F.B. Berezin, is provided by a complex multi-level functional system, at different levels of which regulation is carried out primarily by psychological (socio-psychological and actually mental) or physiological mechanisms. In the general system of mental adaptation, there are three main levels or subsystems: the actual mental, socio-psychological and psychophysiological. At the same time, the tasks of mental adaptation itself are to maintain mental homeostasis and preserve mental health, socio-psychological - the organization of adequate microsocial interaction, psychophysiological adaptation - the optimal formation of psychophysiological relationships and the preservation of physical health. The study of indicators of mental adaptation therefore requires an integrated approach and simultaneous assessment of the current mental state, characteristics of microsocial interaction, cerebral activity and autonomic regulation. An indicator of the success of mental adaptation is the achievement of the ability to perform the main tasks of the activity. Two groups of them were most often used as adaptation criteria: objective and subjective. F.B. Berezin emphasizes that the effectiveness of adaptation cannot be assessed independently of cost indicators, and defines mental adaptation as “the process of establishing an optimal match between the individual and the environment during the implementation of human activities, which allows the individual to satisfy current needs and realize significant goals associated with them (while maintaining mental and physical health), ensuring at the same time compliance of a person’s mental activity and behavior with the requirements of the environment.” Factors that determine the effectiveness of the adaptation process

Disturbances in homeostasis and the state of equilibrium in the human-environment system can be caused by various factors. Depending on the aspect in which the adaptation process was considered, a number of authors studied the influence of either biological or social factors. According to V.G. Aseev, social factors (industrial and interpersonal relations, social connections, communication, etc.) are the same objective forms of influence on a person as biological factors, and social factors play a decisive role in adaptation mechanisms. It is obvious that the action of biological and social factors can be mutually mediated: “it can be confidently stated that such factors of progress as, for example, the acceleration of the pace of life, the intensification of production processes, urbanization, “alienation”, a complex of socio-psychological and cultural-historical conditions of our era - they act on human biology not directly, but indirectly, refracted through the neuropsychic sphere.”

IN AND. Medvedev describes three groups of factors (determinants) of the adaptation process that are closely interrelated. In his opinion, a person is affected by a complex of both natural adaptogenic factors and social ones, determined by the type of activity performed and the social tasks facing it. The third group of factors are the internal conditions for performing activities, i.e. state of processes that ensure adaptation. G.M. Zarakovsky identifies three groups of such processes: operational - constituting the direct content of those actions that a person performs to achieve the goal of the activity; support processes (energy, plastic, etc.) that create conditions for performing activities; regulatory processes - organizing, directing activities as a whole and managing the functioning of the first two groups.

F.B. Berezin studied the influence of character accentuations on the adaptation process. In his opinion, accentuated individuals do not exhibit mental adaptation disorders, because the personality traits that determine their behavior contribute to mental adaptation if they meet the requirements of the environment. However, if prolonged tension of adaptation mechanisms leads to an undesirable sharpening of accentuated traits, the adaptive capabilities of the individual are reduced and these traits facilitate the emergence of intrapsychic and interpersonal conflicts.

Adjustment disorder

Adjustment disorder is a maladaptive reaction to clearly detectable psychosocial stress or stresses, manifesting itself 3 months after the onset of stress. This pathological reaction may be perceived by the subject as a personal misfortune; it is not an exacerbation of a mental illness that meets other criteria. The disorder usually resolves soon after the stress ceases, or, if the stress remains, a new level of adaptation is achieved. The reaction is maladaptive due to disturbances in social or professional activities or due to manifestations that go beyond the normal, usual, expected reactions to such stress. Therefore, this diagnosis should not be made if the patient meets the criteria for a more specific disorder.

Adjustment disorders increase in the presence of one or more stresses. The severity of stress or stress does not always determine the severity of adjustment disorder. Personal organization and cultural or societal norms and values ​​contribute to maladaptive responses to stress. Its severity is a complex function of degree, quantity, duration, reversibility, environment and personal relationships.

In the presence of a simultaneous personality disorder or organic lesion, adaptation disorder may also develop. Such exposure may also result from the loss of a parent during childhood. Although, by definition, adjustment disorder occurs after stress, symptoms do not necessarily begin immediately, nor do they immediately go away when the stress stops. With constant stress, the disorder can last a lifetime. It can also occur at any age. Its manifestations are very diverse, with the most common symptoms in adults being depressive, anxious and mixed symptoms.

Somatic symptoms are most common in children and the elderly, but may also occur in others. Sometimes patients become violent and reckless, drinking, committing crimes, or withdrawing from society.

DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria for adjustment disorders.

A. Response to overt psychosocial stress (or multiple stresses) that occurs within 3 months of the onset of stress(es).

B. The maladaptive nature of the reaction is indicated by one of the following: 1) disruption in professional (including school) activities or in normal social life or relationships with others, 2) symptoms that go beyond the norm and expected reactions to stress. C. The disorder is not simply an example of an overreaction to stress or an exacerbation of one of the previously described mental disorders.

D. The maladjustment reaction lasts no more than 6 months.

conclusions

The problem of adaptation, being interdisciplinary, occupies a large place in the research of domestic and foreign psychologists.

Almost all authors consider adaptation as a process of adaptation to various states of the external environment, during which new qualities or properties are acquired. This emphasizes the activity of adaptive processes that constantly accompany human life and contribute to his survival in various conditions.

But, despite numerous studies of adaptation, there are still many blank spots in understanding the essence, types and structure of this phenomenon, as well as the factors that determine it.

Bibliography:

• Alyokhin A.N.
  Adaptation as a concept in medical and psychological research // Anniversary collection of scientific works (to the 10th anniversary of the Department of Clinical Psychology of the A.I. Herzen Russian State Pedagogical University). – St. Petersburg: Strategy of the Future, 2010. – P. 27-32.
• Berezin F. B. Psychological and psychophysiological adaptation of a person. – L.: Nauka, 1988. – 260 p.
• Kaplan G.I. Clinical psychiatry. M., 1994.
• Maklakov A. G. General psychology. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.
• Yanitsky M.S. Adaptation process: psychological mechanisms and patterns of dynamics. Tutorial. – Kemerovo: Kemerovo State University, 1999..

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