Constancy of perception is the relative constancy of certain perceived properties of objects when the conditions of perception change. It is most clearly expressed in the visual perception of the size, shape and color of objects.
The constancy of the perception of the size of an object lies in the fact that the same object, being at different distances from the observer, is perceived by him as the same in size, although the size of the images of the object on the retina of the eyes decreases with its distance.
The degree of constancy of perception will be different at different distances. If you look at a pencil from a distance of 25 cm, and then from a distance of 50 cm, then its image on the retinas in the second case will be half as large as in the first. But its apparent size will not change: the pencil seems to us to be an object of the same size. This is a case of complete constancy. At a distance from 3 to 500 m, the visible size of objects gradually decreases, but to a lesser extent than the size of their images on the retinas. The constancy of the perception of magnitude becomes incomplete. At long distances it completely disappears. If the apparent size of objects at a distance of 1000 m is taken as one, then at a distance of 2000 m the object will appear half as large; at a distance of 10,000 m - 10 times less, etc. In other words, at long distances the visible size of objects will correspond to the projected size of their images on the retinas. The perception of magnitude becomes constant.
- The basis for the constancy of perception of the size of objects is a conditioned reflex to a complex stimulus: irritations from the eye muscles are added to irritations coming from the retinas. arising when they contract at the moment of fixation of the gaze on an object. This combination of stimuli, which coincides several times with tactile stimulation from an object of known size, is a signal of the actual size of the object (I. P. Pavlov).
At a small distance of objects from the observer, adaptive eye movements (convergence - bringing the visual axes inward and accommodation - changing the shape of the lens for better vision at different distances) increase, so the constancy of the perception of magnitude is complete or almost complete. When perceiving objects at large distances, the mechanism of convergence and accommodation is turned off. The main signal of the size of objects is the images on the retinas. The perception of magnitude becomes constant. When determining the size of an object at a distant distance, a person compares it with the size of other objects that are well known to him and located nearby.
It has been experimentally established that with binocular vision (when seeing with two eyes), the constancy of the perception of magnitude is higher than with monocular vision. And this is understandable: when observing with one eye, the number of motor impulses coming from the receptors to the cortex is significantly reduced due to the convergence being turned off; only the motor reflex of the lens remains. It has also been proven that the degree of constancy of the visible size of things well known to man is higher than in the perception of geometric figures, the size of which is usually arbitrary.
The perception of the shape of an object also has, within certain limits, the property of constancy.
The constancy of the perception of the shape of an object is the relative constancy of the visible form when the position of the object in space changes. The image of a flat object on the retina of the eyes changes depending on the position of the object in space. But the visible form of an object either does not differ at all from its actual form (complete constancy), or differs only slightly if we compare it with the shape of the image of the object on the retinas (incomplete constancy). Thus, the image of the plate will be either a circle or a more or less elongated ellipse, and the retinal edge of the notebook will be either a rectangle, or a rhombus, or a trapezoid, depending on the angle of view of the observer. But we usually perceive these objects as they really are; We see the plate as round, and the notebook as a rectangular quadrangle.
The constancy of the perception of the shape of an object is explained in the same way as the constancy of the perception of size. Looking at an object, we very quickly and imperceptibly trace its contours with our gaze. If an object is located at an angle to the line of sight, we notice that one of its edges is closer to us, and the other is further away. Irritations from the convergent and accommodative muscles combine with irritations from the retina of the eyes, forming a complex stimulus, with various variants of which (depending on the variants of the position of the body in space) a person is already familiar with previous experience.
Constancy of color perception is the relative invariance of the visible color of objects when lighting changes. We see black velvet and coal black both in midday sunlight and at dusk. And under the same lighting conditions we see sugar and chalk as white. This is a case of complete constancy of the visible color of objects. The constancy of the visible color of objects under chromatic lighting is less pronounced. We perceive snow as white both in the crimson sunset and in the blue light of neon lamps. However, under very bright chromatic lighting, the constancy of color perception may disappear, and objects will take on the color of the lighting. This feature of perception is widely used in the theater to create the desired impression on the audience.
The constancy of visible color is higher when an object is perceived against the background of other objects. Changing the intensity of illumination or its color simultaneously changes the color of all objects in the field of view. A person develops a conditioned reflex to the relationship between color stimuli, which allows him to recognize the colors of objects regardless of changes in lighting, i.e., constantly. For example, he saw many times a forest, a field, a sandy hill, a lake and the sky above them at sunny noon, at dawn, at foggy twilight, at night. Adapting to changing lighting, a person could not help but notice that the colors of all objects familiar to him change each time in a certain direction (some darken, others lighten, turn pink, turn blue, etc.). Thus, the sandy bank of a river in bright sunlight appears lighter than the water surface of the river, and at dusk, on the contrary, it appears darker.
The degree of constancy of color perception depends on the simultaneous or separate influence of several conditions: adaptation to the general level of brightness of the visual field, the effect of light contrast, and the perception of the light source. Additional conditions such as the distance of the object, shine, highlights, shadows, etc. also have an impact.
Laws of perception. Illusions
Due to the fact that one of the main properties of perception is integrity, in psychology much attention is paid to research into the organization of perception, especially to the principles (laws) of perceptual grouping. This problem has been studied most thoroughly in Gestalt psychology, which argues that the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts. The most important of the principles mentioned is that any image or object is perceived as a figure that stands out against a certain background.
Perception as a perceptual activity.
Observation and observation
Perception can be considered not only as one of the cognitive processes, but also as a relatively independent perceptual activity. Perception as a process is included in various types of practical and mental activity of a person as one of its components, which are not always clearly recognized. But it becomes a relatively independent perceptual activity if it has a goal, a system of motives, methods of implementation and a certain result. Perceptual activity includes a number of perceptual actions.
Let us explain this with an example.
Someone, for example a geographer, goes to a river in order to study the characteristics of its flow in a certain place. He walks through the meadow, busy with his thoughts, poorly noticing the surrounding objects, but nevertheless not losing his way and avoiding the usual obstacles - a bush, a stone, a puddle. Perception, as part of his mental activity at the moment, acts as one of the processes of sensory reflection of the situation, without which activity would be impossible. But the path turned out to be a deep ravine that had to be crossed. Perception immediately becomes arbitrary and purposeful, transforms into a relatively independent activity that precedes practical actions: before crossing a ravine, one must carefully examine its slopes and bottom, that is, perform a certain system of orienting actions (perceptual actions). This activity, in turn, is subordinated to an activity that is broader in scope: having overcome the obstacle and reaching the river, the geographer chose a convenient place and began to observe the movement of water, the nature of the banks, etc., changing position several times and writing something in a notebook. Perception has become a special activity - observation. Perceptual activity can also include the perception of a film, landscape, concert, etc.
Currently, in the field of child and engineering psychology, numerous experiments are being conducted to study perceptual actions in their genesis (emergence and development) in a child and in the production activities of an adult, for example, in the work of a dispatcher or other operator. Researchers point out that perceptual actions occur in a certain sequence and form a certain system of actions, namely: first, the object is detected; then highlighting its most informative features, for example, the contour characteristic of a given object; This is followed by familiarization with the selected features (examination, feeling, etc.) and, finally, identification of the object, i.e., assigning it to a certain category of objects (for example, plants, animals, mechanisms, etc.). As indicated at the beginning of the chapter, in adults these indicative and exploratory actions proceed quickly, in a “collapsed” form. Detection and identification are extremely difficult when there is rapid oncoming movement of an object and an observer, for example a pilot, a machinist, or a driver. The duration of perceptual actions is measured in seconds or fractions of a second. With such a lack of time, it is difficult to avoid mistakes.
One of the teacher’s tasks is to teach children to observe and develop in them a vitally valuable personality trait - observation. Observation is a long-term, targeted perception of an object, carried out according to a specific plan, followed by analysis and generalization of the data obtained.
Observation is necessary in any human activity - educational, labor, creative. Before completing any task independently, the student watches how the teacher performs it. Before starting work on a new or repaired machine, a worker observes it, checking the serviceability of individual parts and the mechanism as a whole. A teacher, teaching and raising children, constantly monitors the behavior of students, the process of their assimilation of knowledge, the characteristics of each student’s work, and the results of his educational influences. In scientific activities, observation often acts as a special research method, for example in the natural sciences, psychology, etc.
Observation only gives valuable theoretical or practical results when the following conditions are met.
- The observer clearly understands the purpose of observation, has practical knowledge of observation techniques in this area and has some knowledge about the object of observation. Sometimes special instruments are required for observation; they must be studied in advance.
- There is an observation plan that specifies the sequence, time, location and number of observations.
- Observation data is recorded in the form of descriptions, protocols, transcripts, sketches, photographs, phonograms, film documents, collections of samples, etc. Objectivity requires that not only those facts that correspond to the observer’s hypothesis are selected and recorded, but also facts that contradict it.
- The observation results are carefully analyzed, compared, and, if possible, subjected to quantitative processing. All this is necessary to identify the essence and patterns of connections of the object being studied.
People who, from an early age, are accustomed to purposeful and systematic observations of the phenomena of the surrounding world, develop powers of observation. Observation is a persistent typical feature of a person’s mental make-up, which manifests itself in the ability to sufficiently fully and comprehensively perceive and imagine objects in the surrounding world, highlight subtle, but sometimes quite significant features in them, notice differences in similar phenomena and objectively interpret the results of one’s observations.
Some people have all-round powers of observation, while others are predominantly observant in a particular area, such as nature, technology, or human psychology. Observation is a very valuable human ability, necessary for the formation of his thinking and for practical activities. It needs to be developed in children as early as possible.
General features of perception
In various educational literature on general psychology there are various concepts of perception:
Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena, resulting from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptive surfaces of the sense organs.
Perception is the reflection of objects or phenomena during their direct impact on the senses.
Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena as a whole, acting directly on the senses, and not their individual properties, as is the case with sensations.
Perception is not the sum of sensations received from a specific object, but a qualitatively new stage of sensory perception with its own capabilities
Perception is a form of holistic mental reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses
Having carefully studied all these definitions, we can conclude that perception is the result of the activity of a system of analyzers. The primary analysis taking place in the receptors is complemented by the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the analyzer parts of the brain. Unlike sensations, perceptual processes form an idea of a complete object, reflecting the entire set of its properties. The image of perception, however, is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.
Block 2. Perception. Sensory quality.
A person constantly perceives various images of the world around him. So, the appearance of a pen on the table is an image that can be characterized in a certain way, for example, by indicating the approximate size, color, position on the table. After taking a pen in your hand and writing something on a piece of paper, the image is complemented by sensory sensations. The image of the handle is complemented by the fact that its surface is smooth, its weight is light, etc. You can lick the handle, smell it, and each time the sensory quality of the image of this handle becomes more capacious, due to the differentiation of submodalities. Perception is based on a person’s experience of the sensory quality of an object.
Block 6. Perception. Subjective character.
The subject perceives the world around him as objects presented outside of a person, located in space and time. The experience of the objectivity of the surrounding world arises, thanks to this fundamental property of perception. The world is perceived as a given, in which each object is highlighted and has its own properties.
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When a person looks at a pen, takes it in his hand, writes on paper, an experience of the reality of the pen, paper, and written words arises. Moreover, objects of reality include various sensory sensations and the perception of these sensations. The handle is not only visible, but also tactilely perceived. This experience of objectivity accompanies a person in a state of wakefulness, if he is not under the influence of psychoactive substances, in a state of deep trance, in a state of sensory isolation, or is mentally ill.
Read the article “How to change yourself and your life, where to start?”
The perception of objects occurs according to the type of identification, categorization. A person compares perceived images with those images that are in memory, which are already endowed with meaning; there is a semantic field. This warehouse of memory containers is formed in a person in the process of individual development, when personal experience and blocks of cultural historical experience of civilization are combined.
Thus, the entire world of objects is each time perceived in comparison with the inner world of familiar images that already exist in human memory. When faced with the image of a new object that has no name, the subject reifies it, gives it meaning, using for this the existing set of images as resources of help. So the famous Rorschach test - ink blots allows different people to see dozens and hundreds of a wide variety of images in them.
Block 5. Perception. Reference system.
One day, I went to a basketball game to watch the professional teams play! It should be noted that my own height is 188 cm. And I am used to perceiving myself as tall, because most of the people I come into contact with are shorter than me. After the game, I was the lucky one who was destined to have a photo taken surrounded by sweaty and hefty athletes! And here I experienced a completely uncomfortable moment, because I was the smallest in this crowd! I was just a “pygmy” surrounded by a dozen guys whose height ranged from 200 cm and above. And it was a strong experience! You can say that I was shocked, despite the fact that I previously knew in the abstract about the tall height of basketball players!
The subject always correlates objects with each other and, based on the results obtained, draws conclusions which object is higher and which is lower, the sound is louder or the sound is softer, the food is spicy or bland, etc. At the same time, a person, without any comparison of objects, is able to clearly identify an object as heavy, for example, because there is a certain internal standard of weight, a comparison with which allows one to draw a conclusion. Surely, for a slender girl, dumbbells of 10 kg will seem heavy, while for a professional weightlifter with a body weight of 100 kg, the same weight is perceived as a “speck of dust”. The standard is a subjective value on the one hand, and on the other hand it correlates with cultural social representation. And a slender girl may sincerely believe that 10 kg is not heavy at all, but the problem is only in her weak muscles, and vice versa, a weightlifter may believe that 10 kg is a fairly heavy weight for an athlete if he is only 6 years old.
There are social standards that permeate the entire subject area of communications of individuals and since the cultural and educational level of people is different, oddities often arise when “white” becomes “black”.
These are prerequisites for discrepancies in assessments of situations in which negotiators find themselves, which significantly complicates the consolidation of decisions and delays the achievement of agreements.
